Gupta Empire: Contributions to Astronomy & Mathematics

Although preceded by two Guptan rulers, Chandragupta I (reign 320-335 CE) is credited with establishing the Gupta Empire in the Ganges River valley in about 320 CE, when he assumed the name of the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The period of Gupta rule between 300 and 600 CE has been called the Golden Age of India for its advances in science and emphasis on classical Indian art and literature. Gupta rulers acquired much of the land previously held by the Mauryan Empire, and peace and trade flourished under their rule.  Sanskrit became the official court language. In 499 CE, the mathematician Aryabhata published his landmark treatise on Indian astronomy and mathematics, Aryabhatiya, which described the earth as a sphere moving around the sun.

Astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and religion were closely linked in ancient India. Astronomy developed out of the need to determine solstices, equinoxes, and phases of the moon for Vedic rituals. Eighteen early astronomical texts or siddhantas, of which only the Surya-Siddhantha, written around 400 BCE, survives, discuss topics including lunar and solar eclipses, astronomical instruments, and the phases of the moon. The Vedanga Jyotisha composed by the astronomer Lagadha about 500 BCE outlines a calendar based on a five-year cycle or yuga with 62 lunar months and 1,830 days. India's earliest calendar, the Saptarshi calendar is broken into 2,700-year cycles and a version counting back to 3076 BCE is still in use in parts of India today.

Astronomy flourished under the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550 CE) during which time Ujjain in central India emerged as a center for astronomical and mathematical research. In 499 CE, Aryabhata, an Indian astronomer and mathematician who was also head of the university at Nalanda in Magadha (an ancient region located in what is now Bihar), composed the Aryabhatiya, a significant treatise about mathematics and astronomy written in Sanskrit. Aryabhata described a spherical Earth that rotates on its own axis and the orbits of planets in relation to the sun. He dated the universe to approximately 4,320,000 years and calculated the length of the solar year. India's first space satellite, launched in 1975, was named Aryabhata in his honor.

By 550 CE, the original Gupta line had no successor and the empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms with independent rulers. Unlike the Mauryan Empire's centralized bureaucracy, the Gupta Empire allowed defeated rulers to retain their kingdoms in return for a service, such as tribute or military assistance. Samudragupta's son Chandragupta II (r. 375–415 CE) waged a long campaign against the Shaka Satraps in western India, which gave the Guptas access to Gujarat's ports, in northwest India, and international maritime trade. Kumaragupta (r. 415–454 CE) and Skandagupta (r. c. 454–467 CE), Chandragupta II's son and grandson respectively, defended against attacks from the Central Asian Huna tribe (a branch of the Huns) that greatly weakened the empire. 

(Reproduced and adapted for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

Our final video clip from Story of India is available here.

Asoka

Emperor Ashoka

Ashoka (Asoka), the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire, reigned from c. 269-233 BCE, and his exemplary story remains popular in folk plays and legends across southern Asia. The emperor ruled a vast territory that stretched from the Bay of Bengal to Kandahar and from the North-West Frontier of Pakistan to below the Krishna River in southern India. The year 261 BCE marks a turning point in Ashoka's reign when, in part to increase access to the Ganges River, he conquered the east coast kingdom of Kalinga. By Ashoka's account, more than 250,000 people were killed, made captive or later died of starvation. Feeling remorseful about this massive suffering and loss, the emperor converted to Buddhism and made dharma, or dhamma, the central foundation of his personal and political life.

Throughout his kingdom, the emperor inscribed laws and injunctions inspired by dharma on rocks and pillars, some of them crowned with elaborate sculptures. Many of these edicts begin "Thus speaks Devanampiya Piyadassi [Beloved of the Gods]" and counsel good behavior including decency, piety, honoring parents and teachers and protection of the environment and natural world. Guided by this principle, Ashoka abolished practices that caused unnecessary suffering to men and animals and advanced religious toleration. To further the influence of dharma, he sent his son, a Buddhist monk, to Sri Lanka, and emissaries to countries including Greece and Syria. To some historians, the edicts unified an extended empire, one that was organized into five parts governed by Ashoka and four governors. After his reign, Ashoka has become an enduring symbol of enlightened rule, non-violence, and religious tolerance. In 1950, the Lion Capital of Ashoka, a sandstone sculpture erected in 250 BCE, was adopted as India's official emblem by then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.

(Reproduced for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary of Chandragupta Maurya may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

Arthashastra and the Mauryan Empire

Today we will debate whether the advice laid out in the primary source Arthashastra was unethical or an effective means for gaining and keeping power.

http://www.mrdowling.com/612-ashoka.html

Introductory Video available at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/timeline/2/

In 320 BCE, [C]handragupta Maurya (c. 320-298 BCE) became the founder of the Mauryan Empire. By the end of the century, Chandragupta's empire ranged from the Himalayas to the Deccan plateau in Southern India and united the Indus and Gangetic valleys under a central administration that would thrive for 140 years. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court, marveled at the wealth and splendor of the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra (Patna), and his portrait of the king reveals a masterful and suspicious ruler who was constantly vigilant, fearing attempts on his life. A manual about statecraft, Arthasastra, written in part by Chandragupta's head minister, Kautilya (other authors made subsequent additions in later centuries), is a revealing study of Mauryan bureaucracy. The book, which is often compared to Machiavelli's The Prince, discusses practical advice for rulers about how to run a kingdom, including ways to cultivate spies and become popular in conquered territories.

Legends of Chandragupta's life abound; some claim his family was related to the Buddha while others say that he met Alexander the Great and was imprisoned for offending him. Most versions of his death recount that Chandragupta abdicated his throne to become a Jain monk and fasted until he died. After Chandragupta's death, his son Bindasara and grandson Ashoka the Great increased the empire's power and consolidated its lands.

(Reproduced for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary of Chandragupta Maurya may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

Story of India, Mauryan Empire (28:25-58:15)

Asia Map Quiz

Countries	Capitals	Landmarks
Bangladesh Burma/Myanmar China India Indonesia Japan Malaysia Nepal Philippines South Korea Thailand Uzbekistan Vietnam	Dhaka Naypyidaw Beijing New Delhi Jakarta Tokyo Kuala Lumpur Kathmandu Manila Seoul Bangkok Tashkent Hanoi	Bay of Bengal East China Sea Ganges River Hindu Kush Mnt Huang He River Indian Ocean Indus River Mekong River Pacific Ocean Sea of Japan South China Sea Takla Makan Desert Yellow Sea

We have already looked at the creation of the contemporary borders of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh between 1947 and now.  Our deeper look at the Asia map will focus on cultural diffusion and long-distance trade, so attached here are maps demonstrating how Asia was connected between 100 C.E. and 1000 C.E. by the spread of Buddhism, the Silk Road, and the water routes of Indian Ocean basin that took advantage of the power of the monsoon winds.  You can use this labeled contemporary map of Asia by clicking here. 

India Religious Systems Salon

In this activity, you will research your chosen religious system (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, or Sikhism) and you will represent that religion during the discussion.  Our overarching question will be as follows:

"To what extent are the implications for social and economic life different within India's religious traditions?"  

• How would I expect myself to live on a day-to-day basis?
• How would I obtain the resources I need in order to survive?
• How important is basic survival versus luxury to me? 
• How would I organize my social life (family, friends, meals, living space, leisure time, time with myself, time with others, quality of life)?
• How would I organize my economic life (occupation, effort, status, material and non-material expectations for the future).   

You may use ABC-CLIO World Religions, the Story of India, and the British Library Website on Sacred Stories.  For those specializing in Sikhism, you might also try this UCLA website.  For those specializing in Hinduism, you might take a look at contemporary Hinduism, also at the UCLA website.  For those specializing in Jainism, you may link to the UCLA website here.  Finally, Buddhism at UCLA website here.

7th Period Sign Up Sheet (You May Switch Slots With Permission of Both Students) 

8th Period Sign Up Sheet (You May Switch Slots With Permission of Both Students)

Hinduism Mahabharata Board Notes (1 of 2)

Hinduism Mahabharata Board Notes (2 of 2)

Buddhism Dhammapada Source Board Notes

Jainism Mahavira Source Board Notes

Sikhism

Sikhism is a monotheistic faith that originated in India during the 15th century. Today, it has roughly 20 million adherents worldwide, the majority of whom live in the Punjab, in northwest India. It was founded by Guru Nanak, the first in a line of ten gurus (spiritual leaders) who developed and promulgated the faith. In Punjabi, the word "Sikh" means "disciple" and the faithful are those who follow the writings and teachings of the Ten Gurus, which are set down in the holy book, the "Adi Granth."

Sikhism synthesizes elements of both Islam and Hinduism into a distinct religious tradition. Like Islam, it emphasizes belief in only one God and similar to Hinduism, teaches that the karmic cycle of rebirths cannot be overcome unless you achieve oneness with God. For Sikhs, everyone is equal before God and a good life is achieved by remembering God at all times, being part of a community, serving others, living honestly, and rejecting blind rituals and superstitions.

In the late 17th century the tenth guru, Gobind Singh, established a military brotherhood within Sikhism called the Khalsa (fraternity of the pure). Although not all Sikhs belong to the Khalsa, many obey its edict of wearing the five symbols of faith, the Five Ks: uncut hair (kesh), a wooden comb (kanga), a steel bracelet (kara), cotton undergarments (kachera), and a sword (kirpan). The turban worn by Sikh men is the most visible manifestation of their adherence to these principles.

(Reproduced for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary of Sikhism may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

Our primary source from class can be found here.

Jainism

Derived from the Sanskrit word "jina," meaning "to conquer," Jainism teaches that all life forms have an eternal soul bound by karma in a never-ending cycle of rebirth. Through nonviolence or ahimsa, the soul can break free of this cycle and achieve kaivalya. Traditions and ideas central to Jainism can be traced to the 7th century BCE, but Mahavira, the last of Jainism's 24 great spiritual teachers, formalized them into the Jain religion in the 6th century. Some scholars see the roots of the faith as far back as the Indus civilization in Gujarat.

Central to Jainism are five vows: nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), chastity (brahmacharya), and non-possession or non-attachment (aparigraha). As a manifestation of ahimsa, Jain monks wear nets over their mouths and sweep the street with their clothing so as to avoid harming insects, thereby accruing karma from not injuring even the smallest life forms. Mahavira, whose teachings are recorded in the Agamas texts, taught liberation through the three principles of right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana), and right conduct (samyak charitra).

Between the first and second centuries BCE, the Jains divided into an orthodox sect Digambara ("sky–clad") in which followers claimed adherence to Mahavira's philosophy by going without clothes, and the Shvetambara ("white–clad") sect. Approximately four million Jains practice the religion worldwide, and important places of pilgrimage among observers include Mt. Abu in Rajasthan, site of five ornate Jain temples, and Sravanabelagola, site of a 57.5 foot statue of Gomateshvara (Bahubali), Jainism's first spiritual leader or tirthankara. Today Sravanabelagola is the site of the Mahamastak Abhishek, the biggest Jain religious festival which takes place every 12 years, the last one in 2007.

(Reproduced for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary of Jainism may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

http://www.pbs.org/video/2365071047/ 


Our Jainism primary source is available here.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion or philosophy founded in the 5th century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, born a prince of the Shakya clan in northern India. Much controversy surrounds the Buddha's birth and death, or parinirvana (the reaching of nirvana); the traditional date of his death is 486 BCE but some believe he was born sometime in the mid-fifth century BCE and died at Kushinagar between 400 and 350 BCE. The Buddha, the Buddhist community, and dharma (or religious law), are considered the Three Jewels of Buddhism.

The first of Four Noble Truths that Buddhism teaches is that all life is suffering (dhukka). Siddhartha arrived at this truth by observing disease, illness, suffering, and death in the forms of an old man, a blind man, a dying man, and a corpse. On a quest to find a way to break free from this suffering, Siddhartha left his wife and child to become an ascetic, traveling across the Magadha kingdom in northeast India and studying under a number of teachers. How to liberate the self from a constant cycle of birth and rebirth, or samsara, was his principle question. After six years of wandering, he found his answer and attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree in Boghgaya.

The Buddha's insights are crystallized in the remaining noble truth—that suffering is caused by desire (trishna); that suffering can be overcome; that by following the Eightfold Path (imagined as a cyclic Wheel of Dharma), individuals can become free of attachment and reach nirvana. The Eightfold Path includes living with right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. He also advocated living according to the "Middle Way," a path between severe asceticism and heady indulgence. The Buddha lived the remaining 45 years of his life after enlightenment as a wandering ascetic, delivering discourses and gaining followers, among them Magadha's king Bimbisara, who became a patron and provided generous donations including a monastery at his capital, Rajagaha (found in what is now the Indian state of Bihar).

Buddhists currently number around 400 million worldwide, and the philosophy's two major traditions are Theraveda—practiced primarily in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos—and Mahayana—practiced chiefly in China, Tibet, Japan, and Korea. Wesak, the celebration that marks the Buddha's birth in May, is the most important Buddhist festival. 

(Reproduced for educational, non-commercial use only by students of Early World History, the above summary of Buddhism may also be found at http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/)

Buddhism (minute 5:20-8:12)

(Buddhism begins at 7:22 minute mark, Part 1 of 2)

(Buddhism, Part 2 of 2 continues) 

Source: http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/14.html#buddhism 

Our primary source excerpt of the Dhammapada may be found by clicking here. 

The Mahabharata

The Mahabharata ("The Great Tale of the Bharatas") is one of two major epics in ancient Indian literature. The story first began in the oral tradition during the first millennium BCE and was composed in Sanskrit over centuries, beginning perhaps as early as 800 or 900 BCE, and reaching its final written form around the fourth century BCE. Attributed to the poet Vyasa, the epic is composed of nearly 100,000 verses divided into 18 books. The sixth book contains the central text of Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Bountiful Lord"), which discusses the four goals of life or purushartas—artha (worldly wealth and success), kama (pleasure and desire), dharma (righteousness), and moksha (knowledge and liberation from the cycle of birth and death). A dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and Krishna, the Bhagavad Gita makes dharma its central lesson: hesitating before the prospect of war, Krishna reminds the hero Arjuna of his selfless duty or dharma.

Set in the kingdom of Kurukshetra on India's northern plains, the epic narrates a succession struggle among members of the Bharata ruling family that results in a ruinous civil war. The Pandava brothers are pitted against their rival cousins, the Kauravas, who divest the eldest Pandava brother of his kingdom and his wife in a fixed gambling match. The brothers are forced into exile for 13 years during which time they prepare for war with their cousins. The Pandavas prevail in an 18-day battle that causes great loss of life on both sides. In contrast with the Vedas, which are considered "sruti" or divine revelation, the epics are considered smrti ("that which is remembered") or of human origin .(Source: Story of India).  We will look at this Mahabharata excerpt, seemingly a guide to behavior and duty.  If this was your guide, how would it change your social and economic interactions? 

The 5 minute, 22 second video on the Mahabharata is available at this link: 

http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/10.html#mahabharata

The Ramayana

Within the culture of India and Hinduism, the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata written between 500 BCE and 200 CE are also influential.  The Asian Art Museum in San Francisco mounted a huge exhibition of the Ramayana (The Rama Epic) over the last few months.

  

http://ramaepic.asianart.org/

Story of India

Storytelling of Sita's abduction with artifacts: 

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=_HgPCPgDTJ

You may also see the collection of the Asian Art Museum via Khan Academy, available here. 

Hinduism and the Vedas

Hinduism: (minute 00:54-05:17)

Brahma, the creator of the cosmos

"Brahma." In World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABC-CLIO, 2004. Image. Accessed January 6, 2017. https://ancienthistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/1213943. 

Shiva, destroyer of the cosmos

"Statue of Dancing Shiva." In World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABC-CLIO, 2004. Image. Accessed January 6, 2017. https://ancienthistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/619747.

Vishnu, preserver of the cosmos

"Vishnu." In World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABC-CLIO, 2004. Image. Accessed January 6, 2017. https://ancienthistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/1940100.

Practiced primarily in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal, Hinduism is considered the world's oldest religion, with traditions originating in and before the Neolithic era, around 8,000 years ago. Hinduism may have had its beginnings in the Indus River Valley in modern Pakistan, and the word hindu comes from the Persian name for that river.  Approximately 80% of India's population today practices Hinduism.

Although Hinduism contains elements of polytheism, monotheism and monism, all gods within Hinduism are today considered manifestations of Brahman. Many Hindus practice devotion to one of three main deities: Brahma, the creator of the cosmos; Vishnu, preserver of the cosmos; and Shiva, destroyer of the cosmos.

In Hinduism, Vishnu is the preserver and maintainer of the universe. Vishnu, along with Brahma, the creator, and Shiva, the destroyer, are the three main gods of Hinduism. Vishnu is worshipped directly or in his incarnations (physical forms), especially  Rama and Krishna. According to Hindu belief, Vishnu descended to earth to restore order and justice to a threatened world and to save mankind. He has been incarnated 10 times in animal, supernatural, and human forms, including the Buddha. His 10th avatar is yet to come. Vishnu is commonly worshiped by chanting the Vishnu sahasranama, his thousand names.

A heterogeneous philosophy, Hinduism has no one founder and includes many sacred texts, the most ancient being the Vedas. Among the variety of genres included in the Vedic texts, composed 1500 – 1100 BCE, are hymns to gods, descriptions of rituals and philosophical writings.

(Source: The Story of India, http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/14.html